Christmas

The word Christmas comes from the Old English term Cristes maesse, meaning “Christ’s mass.” This was the name for the festival service of worship held on December 25 (January 7 in many Eastern Orthodoxor Eastern Rite churches) to commemorate the birth of Jesus. Although it is accepted that Jesus was born in the small town of Bethlehem a few miles south of Jerusalem, there is no certain information on the date of his birth, not even of the year. One reason for this uncertainty is that the stories of his birth, recorded in the gospels of Matthew and Luke, were written several decades after the event, and those who wrote about it gave no specific dates.

For several centuries the Christian church itself paid little attention to the celebration of Jesus’ birth. The major Christian festival was Easter, the day of his Resurrection. This was understood as his true “birthday” because it was the day of his birth in heaven. Only gradually, as the church developed a calendar to commemorate the major events of the life of Jesus, did it celebrate his birth.

The earliest celebrations of the birth of Jesus were often associated with the date of his baptism or his Crucifixion. Some early Christians believed that his death occurred on March 25 and was the same day as his conception. As a result, his birth nine months later would have been December 25. Another early practice involved celebration of his birthday on the date of his baptism, January 6. The day was named Epiphany, meaning “appearance,” the day of Jesus’ manifestation. The Western church, based in Rome, chose December 25. The earliest reference to this date is from the year 221, though it was not then an important date in the calendar. Christmas was celebrated on December 25 in Rome as early as ad 336 according to an ancient Roman almanac.

In the latter half of the 4th century, the Eastern and Western churches adopted each other’s festivals, thus establishing the modern Christian 12-day celebration from Christmas to Epiphany. In some places the 12th day is called the festival of the three kings because it is believed that the three Wise Men, or Magi, visited the infant Jesus on that day, bringing him gifts.

Today Christmas is more than a one-day celebration or a 12-day festival. In the United States the holiday season begins on Thanksgiving Day and ends on January 1. Sweden starts its celebration on December 13, Saint Lucia’s Day, with a special family breakfast served by the oldest daughter. Festivities in most countries conclude on or before January 6.

The reason for this extended holiday period is that Christmas is no longer only a religious festival. It is also one of the most popular holiday periods for everyone in countries where Christianity has become the dominant religion. Even in Japan, where Christianity is a minority religion, Christmas has become a festive, gift-giving holiday time.

Corruption in Nagaland.

Corruption in Nagaland: Causes & consequences

Nagaland boasts a rich cultural heritage and breathtaking landscape. However, beneath the surface beauty lies the pressing concern that has plagued the State for decades. Like any part of the world, the practice of Corruption is widespread in Nagaland. It is like a Cancer in public life, which has not become too rampant and perpetuated overnight, but in course of time. Corruption has been defined in many different ways, but the most popular and the simplest definition of corruption is given by the World Bank. According to this definition, corruption is “the abuse of public office for private gain”.
Corruption is omnipotent and has progressively become rampant in Naga society. As the State grows, the corrupt also grow to invent new methods of cheating the public. The followings are some of the major causes of corruption:

1. Corruption at the high level are usually the politicians, because these people are generally well-off and a lot more privileges associated with their high office as compared to others. So, their corrupt behaviour is not attributed to meet the needs of their families, but rather to quench their thirst of greed and self-interest.
2. Insufficient checks and balance of public servant, law enforcement bodies, and lack of transparency in public offices creates opportunities for public officials to engage in malpractices.
3. In a high inflation economy and an insufficient salaries for government servants, corrupt practices are driven by necessity to meet the expenses of their families.
4. The negligence and remiss behaviour of government servants is another factor, which often compels the public to bribe/pay a certain amount to get their work done.
5. With the rising number of educated unemployed youth each year and the lack of job opportunities, the level of competition to get a government job rises to a whole new dimension. And as such, biased selection of employees for jobs through illegal means like bribery, favouritism and nepotism is involved.
6. Corruption has increased unceasingly, and the old ideals of honesty, service, morality and ethical values and qualities are regarded obsolete.
7. Election is perhaps the biggest cause of corruption. funding of election campaigns, Bribery to politicians buys influences and bribery by politicians to buys votes is perhaps the root causes of corruption.
8. And finally, the tolerance of people towards corruption, complete lack of public outcry against corruption and the absence of strong public forum to fight against corruption allow corruption to continue as it is.
   Consequences of Corruption:
   Corruption in Nagaland, like any other State of India, is as much a moral and ethical issues. It can slant the entire mechanism of allocation of resources meant for development, investment projects, commercial transactions, economy, political and election system, etc. Funds meant for the public like healthcare, infrastructure, education often ends up in the pockets of the corrupt leaders which in turn, results in poor quality of service and infrastructure. It thus, contributes to a large fiscal deficit for the State, making it more difficult for the State government to have an efficient fiscal policy.
   Corruption also play a huge role in income inequality. The rich become richer and the poor poorer. The modus operandi of those in well positioned individuals is simple. They exploit and take advantage of their office for personal gain, at the cost of the common public in the society.
   Despite active participation by the Election Commission, Church bodies and different Organizations in ‘Clean Election Movement’, the illegal and unethical practices such as proxy voting and voting in return for bribes is again, another huge impact of corruption.
   With the increase in political and bureaucratic non-accountability, sometimes even the individuals tends to take part in corrupt and unethical practices and transactions. And that frustration often leads to let individuals think that “If everybody is doing it, I might as well do it”.
   We often see many new emerging leaders with their determination to eradicate corruption, but sooner or later, they themselves become amassing huge wealth through malpractices. They become materialistic and money-oriented.

Nagaland(India)

Nagaland, state of India, lying in the hills and mountains of the northeastern part of the country. It is one of the smaller states of India. Nagaland is bounded by the Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh to the northeast, Manipur to the south, and Assam to the west and northwest and the country of Myanmar (Burma) to the east. The state capital is Kohima, located in the southern part of Nagaland. Area 6,401 square miles (16,579 square km). Pop (2011) 1,978,502.

Relief and drainage

Nearly all of Nagaland is mountainous. In the north the Naga Hills rise abruptly from the Brahmaputra valley to about 2,000 feet (610 metres) and then increase in elevation toward the southeast to more than 6,000 feet (1,830 metres). The mountains merge with the Patkai Range, part of the Arakan system, along the Myanmar border, reaching a maximum height of 12,552 feet (3,826 metres) at Mount Saramati. The region is deeply dissected by rivers: the Doyang and Dikhu in the north, the Barak in the southwest, and the tributaries of the Chindwin River (in Myanmar) in the southeast.

Climate

Nagaland has a monsoonal (wet-dry) climate. Annual rainfall averages between 70 and 100 inches (1,800 and 2,500 mm) and is concentrated in the months of the southwest monsoon (May to September). Average temperatures decrease with greater elevation; in the summer temperatures range from the low 70s F (about 21–23 °C) to the low 100s F (about 38–40 °C), while in the winter they rarely drop below 40 °F (4 °C), though frost is common at higher elevations. Humidity levels are generally high throughout the state.

Plant and animal life

Forests cover about one-sixth of Nagaland. Below 4,000 feet (1,220 metres) are tropical and subtropical evergreen forests, containing palms, rattan, and bamboo, as well as valuable timber species (notably mahogany). Coniferous forests are found at higher elevations. Areas cleared for jhum (shifting cultivation) have a secondary growth of high grass, reeds, and scrub jungle.

Population composition

The Nagas, an Indo-Asiatic people, form more than 20 tribes, as well as numerous subtribes, and each one has a specific geographic distribution. Though they share many cultural traits, the tribes have maintained a high degree of isolation and lack cohesion as a single people. The Konyaks are the largest tribe, followed by the Aos, Tangkhuls, Semas, and Angamis. Other tribes include the Lothas, Sangtams, Phoms, Changs, Khiamniungams, Yimchungres, Zeliangs, Chakhesangs (Chokri), and Rengmas.

Cultural life

Tribal organization varies from the autocratic angs (chiefs) of the Konyaks and hereditary chieftainships of the Semas and Changs to the democratic structures of the Angamis, Aos, Lothas, and Rengmas. A prominent village institution is the morung (a communal house or dormitory for young unmarried men), where skulls and other trophies of war formerly were hung. The pillars are still carved with striking representations of tigers, hornbills, and human and other figures. Women hold a relatively high and honourable position in Naga society. They work in the fields on equal terms with men and have considerable influence in the tribal councils. A central feature of Naga life is the Feast of Merit, a series of ceremonies culminating with the sacrifice of a mithan (a domesticated guar). Each tribe has its gennas, or festivals, and Naga dance, music, song, and folklore all express an exuberant concern for life.